Migration globally be it internal or international is not a recent phenomenon. However, the bourgeoning rate of young migrants is what continues to be the trend in this 21st century. Migration is the movement of individuals or people from one geographical area to another in search of economic opportunity that significantly involve a change of environment to be able to live a better life. Heckert (2015) viewed migration as the movement of people from one place or country to another with the aim of settling there for some time. Heckert also noted that youth migrate as dependent family members are motivated by current labour opportunities and immediate financial returns. Migration in Africa involves large numbers of migrants moving both within and from the region. In 2020, around 21 million Africans were living in another African country, a significant increase from 2015, when around 18 million Africans were estimated to be living within the region (UN, 2016)). Flahaux (2016) argued that while African migration remains overwhelmingly intra-continental In fact, 79 percent of sub- Saharan African migrants move within the same region. Less than 22 percent of migrants from Africa emigrate outside of Africa, with less than 15 percent of Africans migrants emigrating to Europe or North America. Since the 1980s there has been an acceleration and spatial diversification (beyond colonial patterns) of emigration out of Africa to Europe, North America, the Gulf and Asia. This diversification of African emigration seems partly driven by the introduction of Visa and other immigration restrictions by living in another African country, a significant increase from 2015, when around 18 million Africans were estimated to be living within the region (UN, 2016)). Flahaux (2016) argued that while African migration remains overwhelmingly intra-continental In fact, 79 percent of sub- Saharan African migrants move within the same region. Less than 22 percent of migrants from Africa emigrate outside of Africa, with less than 15 percent of Africans migrants emigrating to Europe or North America. Since the 1980s there has been an acceleration and spatial diversification (beyond colonial patterns) of emigration out of Africa to Europe, North America, the Gulf and Asia. This diversification of African emigration seems partly driven by the introduction of Visa and other immigration restrictions by European states.  Again, contradicting conventional interpretation of African migration as essentially driven by poverty, violence and underdevelopment, increasing migration out of Africa seems rather to be driven by process of development and social transformation which have increased Africans capabilities and aspirations to migrate, a trend which is likely to continue in the future. 

Nigeria is Africa’s economic and demographic giant with an estimated population of over 180 million in 2017 (and more than 210 million in 2022). More than half of Nigeria’s population is below age 35, while 35 per cent are between age 15 and 30. In spite of the huge human and material resources, many Nigerians believe they were better off at independence in 1960 than they are currently. 

Today, in Nigeria, like many other developing countries in the world, there is this increasing tendency to move by people, particularly youth between the age of 15 – 25 years live rural areas to urban areas in search of better opportunities and living conditions in the cities (United Nations, 2013). Also, Bilyaminu and Tijjani (2019) noted that it has been ascertained that the youth are being preoccupied by this movement because it provides them with work opportunities not available in their places of origin. It also constitutes an important stage in the transition to adulthood and an opportunity for independent income generation. The nature of migration in Nigeria involves seasonal migration which most times rural dwellers migrate to urban areas for the purpose of earning a living by engaging in menial jobs such as commercial motorcycle riders, gatemen, vulcanizers, labourers and nail cutters. In fact, majority of the able youth who migrate to urban centres during dry season work and generate income, build themselves before raining season when they go back to their communities to continue farming. According to World Bank report (2007) poverty drives much of this movement where more than 70 per cent of Nigerians live below the national poverty line. Also, millions have been internally displaced due to religious, communally ethnic conflicts, farmer-herders conflict, banditry and kidnappings. With the current hardship as a result of removal of fuel subsidy leading to high fuel prices, high exchange rate of Dollar to Naira and unstable economy, the feeling particularly among the youth is that of a dismal future that fuels the cutters. Infact, majority of the able youth who migrate to urban centres during dry season work and generate income, build themselves before raining season when they go back to their communities to continue farming. According to World Bank report (2007) poverty drives much of this movement where more than 70 per cent of Nigerians live below the national poverty line. Also, millions have been internally displaced due to religious, communally ethnic conflicts, farmer-herders conflict, banditry and kidnappings. With the current hardship as a result of removal of fuel subsidy leading to high fuel prices, high exchange rate of Dollar to Naira and unstable economy, the feeling particularly among the youth is that of a dismal future that fuels the desperation of people seeking greener pastures in the cities and abroad for both skilled and unskilled youth, men and women alike.

International Migration, Brain Drain and Development of third World Countries

International migration involves people crossing state boundaries to reside in another country for a specified period or permanently. It can also refer to the movement of people across international borders to establish a new residence in a different country. The common reasons for such movement may be as a result of economic opportunities, education, family reunification, and the need for refuge from conflict, persecution, or natural disaster (Study.com retrieved on 8/5/25).

The United Nations estimates that there were 281 million international migrants globally as of 2020. Contemporary migration involves moving from one place to another, and it is impacted by three main complicating concepts (Whittemore, 2025). Although in history humans have been m, but in the 19th and 20th centuries up to the 21st century, there is an explosion in human migration. This explosion of sorts has become topic of today’s discussions.

International migrants can be broken into two categories: permanent and temporary. The permanent migrants seek to live in the country they moved to for an extended period of time or even permanently. While the temporary migrants do not stay indefinitely in the new country, are typically there for a period of employment or education. Beyond these migrants, international migrants can be classified into labour-migrants, business migrants, refugees and asylum seekers and family migrants. Each group of migrants has different rules for their migration and they leave their home countries for different reasons. Most of the labour migrants, refugees and asylum seekers are from developing countries. The United Nation Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2016) noted that the decision to migrate is often related to important life transitions such as obtaining higher education, finding and starting work or getting married. With 71 million youth unemployed globally in 2016, the search for work continues to be significant driver of youth migration in both developed and developing countries including Nigeria. Youth are forced to migrate to escape poverty, violence conflict, or are displaced due to effects of war or climate change as well as migration for humanitarian reasons including as refugees, asylum seekers and unaccompanied minors.  

The labour migrants move from their home countries for job opportunities. For example, a number of Nigerian youths today move to Europe and North America as well as Asian and Gulf countries for job opportunities. They may be permanent or temporary, and tend to fill low-skilled jobs. Most countries accept labour migrants if they can prove that they have already made arrangements to work when they arrive and if they apply for a work permit. However, most international migrants from Africa, Latin American countries are irregular migrants, that is without proper documents but are willing to take low skilled jobs in the country of destination after a short stay (Whittemore, 2025). So, every year, millions of labour migrants cross international borders by land, sea or air either to close business deals, vacation or still leave their home countries with no intention of ever moving back and thus enjoy the status of immigrants. According to United Nations estimates nearly one in every people is a migrant. However, their experiences are vastly different and through their migrations, they have had a wide-ranging impact on the societies that they had a wide-ranging impact on the societies that they leave and the communities they enter (Whittemore, 2025).

Young migrants are more vulnerable when in combination with their age and stage of life, they experience isolation, exclusion, discrimination and insecurity. Moreover, in the migration process, young migrants can lose their social networks, and may be without parents or family members who could provide guidance and care. They could be particularly be affected by xenophobia and discrimination. Nigerian young migrants are still suffering discrimination and xenophobia in Countries such as South Africa, European and Middle East nations. Some suffer marginalization due to new and different cultural norms and lack of information about laws and regulations of the countries they are residents. As a result, they are imprisoned, dehumanized or killed and the lucky once are deported back home.

On November, 25, 2023, Intelgion an online newspaper under the caption “UK to suspend temporary visa schemes as over 14,300 Nigerian Doctors and others migrate in 9 months,” reported that the government of the United Kingdom has started considering closing temporary visa schemes for care workers as the country recorded the highest number of migrants in the last nine months. The reason was a result of the call by the New Conservative Party to the Ministers to end the visa schemes for care workers as part of an effort to reduce net migration. It also stated that the government could no longer handle the number of migrants coming into the U.K on a daily basis. The U. K’s migration Department noted that 143,990 healthcare and care worker visas were granted in the year ending September, 2023. It added that this is more than double the 61,274 for the year to September, 2022. Among the beneficiaries are nationalities of Nigeria, Indians and Zimbabweans. Nigeria has the most significant percentage increase behind Zimbabwe at 169 percent and India with 76 percent. In terms of dependents granted health and care work visas, Nigeria increased by 329 percent from 10,533 to 45,203. The reason for the increasing number of healthcare workers migrating to the U.K is attributed to cheap and easy migration conditions as the country faces a shortage of healthcare workers due to COVID-19 pandemic (Hassan Temitope, 2023). The Director of the migration Observatory at the University of Oxford, noted the long-term solution to shortages in the care workforce is better investment in the sector and higher pay for staff, rather than a continued reliance on workers coming from abroad.

Some international migrants tend to be refugees. A refugee is someone who crosses international boundaries to escape persecution, and some are lucky to be able to gain asylum, or the right to settle in another country. That present the fastest way to enter a new society, although it does not involve a great deal of abandonment of any hope of ever returning to their homeland. This group of migrants far numerous, are refugees who are unable to gain such asylum. They frequently find themselves living in refugee camps, which are makeshift settlements that often lack basic necessities host these camps are often in a bind. They want to fulfil a humanitarian mission by allowing people to escape danger but at the same time, they want to avoid a flood of ill-prepared migrants coming to the host country.

The migration of labour particularly across border has been on the increase especially from Africa and Middle East to Europe, America and Asian countries. Labour migrants are moving from their home regions in search of employment, security and better opportunities in the US and other industrialized nations. Interestingly, the U.S also experienced considerable labour migration in the 20th and 21st centuries. Nigerians in large number moved and are still moving to US as a choice destination. Looking at history of international migration to US, by the year 1900, the United States was already one of the most popular destinations for people looking to leave their home lands or countries to start a better life. America was so welcoming to immigrants. Many referred to America as melting pot because people of all different nationalities were brought together.

At the turn of the 20th century, the majority of immigrants to the United States were coming from Europe, especially southern Europe and Eastern Europe, including Russia. This in itself was a major shift, as immigrants had come mainly from Britain, Ireland, Germany, and Scandinavia during the 17th through 19th centuries. There are many migrants who are undocumented immigrants. Many immigrants who had proper documentations and had waited months, if not years, to arrive in the United States. Still the draw of the world’s largest economy was too much for many people to ignore, meaning that more and more people were crossing maritime and land borders to work in the United States illegally. Latin America, East Asia, Africa were some of the regions that undocumented immigrants have originated from. In recent years, the fate of these undocumented immigrants has become politicized with some suggestions ranging from mass deportation as seen by Trump administration and revocation of citizenship.

Of the estimated 1.2 million asylum and mixed migrants about 4,000 Nigerians were reported dead during the period due to dehydration across the Sahara Desert and fatalities or rickety boats across the Mediterranean. UNHCR estimated that in 2016, over 37,000 Nigerians arrived Italy via the Mediterranean at which time they constituted about 31 percent of arrivals. The youth migrate due to a number of reasons; it could be social, economic, cultural, environmental and geographical. 

International migrants, especially of skilled labour has become a defining feature of globalization. Brain drain, the emigration of highly trained or educated individuals to move to developed nations. Brain drain is the emigration of highly educated and skilled professionals from developing countries to developed countries. It occurs because of better job opportunities, higher salaries, political stability, research and educational facilities and career advancement. Generally, brain drain refers to the transfer of human capital from developing to developed countries but it can also occur horizontally relating to the migration of highly skilled professionals such as (engineers, physicians, etc.) between developed countries (Ilasco, 2024).

However, there is one type of immigrants that countries are often very willing to welcome. They are highly-skilled immigrants. For those with advanced or in-demand skills, many countries offer fast tracks to full residency and even citizenship. The thought process is straight forward, that is these high achieving individuals will add more to the economies of their new homes, be it through discoveries, investment, or just new jobs. So, when so many high achievers leave a country that little domestic innovation can occur. This is referred to as brain drain and is a fairly common occurrence. For example, Indian produces many more researchers in science and engineering that end up working in that country, with many of the specialists migrating to the United States. The same can be said of Nigerian doctors, academics, engineers, etc. However, it’s not only STEM related fields that cause a country to experience a brain drain. For years, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria have provided much of the Middle-east with the professional class of business people, doctors, and managers needed to help economies thrive (Study.com).

Brain drains have both positive and negative effects on the development of the third world. The positive effects include: 

Remittances: the migrants send money home, supporting families and stimulating local economies.

Diaspora network: emigrants can transfer knowledge, skills and technology back home. iii. Return migration: some skilled migrants return with enhanced experience and capital to invest in their home countries. iv. Global exposure: migrants may promote trade, investment and diplomacy between host and countries. 

The negative effects are:

Loss of human capital: the departure of doctors, engineers, scientist and academics (teachers) weaken sectors vital to national development

Lower innovation and productivity: developing countries may struggle to build competitive industries.

Dependency on remittances: while helpful, remittance often don’t replace the long-term value of skilled labor of migration

For Ilasco (2024) some of the main causes of brain drain are Disparities in working conditions, levels of pay, or the potential for career development between the source country and destination countries 

Poverty and a lack of economic growth which are believed to be the main reasons.

Discrimination, political repression, and a lack of freedom 

Environmental disasters and the effects of climate change 

Military or civil conflicts 

Poverty and lack of economic growth trigger thousands of educated people from developing countries to look for better living conditions in richer states. However, the migration of educated individuals, alias the ‘brain drain’, does have some positive impact on the source country. (Ilasco, 2024). Substantial migrating waves of educated individuals from one country within relatively short periods of time can lead to the occurrence of brain drain. The least developed and developing countries typically experience brain drain more often than developed countries as theyoffer lower standards of living and thus find it more difficult to retain or attracts highly skilled professionals.

The migratory waves that have taken place in recent decades have led to dramatic changes in the global economic landscape as countries started to compete for a share of highly qualified human capital. Some positive effects of brain drain are stimulate education in source countries as people living there will see this as a passport to future emigration; positive economic feedback for source countries as emigration will increase remittance flows; reduce international transaction costs and enhance trade; facilitate the development of strong diaspora networks and enhance the transfer of know-how, innovation and technology between the destination and source countries; lead to a circular migration, allowing the destination and home countries to share the benefits of labour mobility (Ilasco , 2024). Some negative effects of brain drain include; the loss of skilled and innovative individuals lead to the cost socio-economic potential for the source countries; a loss of tax revenues for the source countries which minimize the potential for public spending; waves of substantial emigration can induce shortages of manpower for source countries in key sectors such as education and health; migrants may need to face a number of bureaucratic barriers in destination countries to be able to work in their field of expertise.

According to Ilasco (2024) the US think tank, fund for peace, published a report called the fragile states index. The report takes into account 12 conflict risk indicators, one of which is the “human flight and Brain Drain” which takes into account the effects of human displacement on the economy due to political or economic reasons and how it affects the growth of nation. The outcomes are presented as index points from 0 to 10, the lower the index, the better.

The biggest drivers of emigration are political, economic and environmental issues. Since high income nations offer greater economic opportunities, they have a much lower level of brain drain. Data from the report shows that’s on average across 177 nations, the brain drain index in 2023 was 5.17 index points. The country list is topped by Samoa with 10 index points. (See table 1)

Table 1: Top 10 Nations with the highest brain drain index

Source: The GlobalEconomy.com cited in in Ilasco (2024). Effects of brain drain in developing countries. www.developmentaid.org

Looking at the top three third world countries in table 1, Palestine prior to the recent conflict (Israel - Hamas), young people in the country (recognized as a country by 145 nations member of the UN) were pursuing educational and training opportunities abroad with the intention of returning to contribute to the economy of their home country. However, the escalation of the IsraelPalestinian conflict has significantly worsened the situation as indicated by the fund for peace’s report which predates the major conflict in 2024. The escalation has profoundly impacted youth development and the overall situation within the country. Consequently, many young Palestinian now aspire to live abroad, despite maintaining strong familial ties and deep sense of connection to their native land.

The second country Jamaica with a population of 2.8 million people, Jamaican-educated youth and highly qualified professionals opt to leave for North America and the United Kingdom which brings about significant social and economic challenges. Nearly a million Jamaicans have left their home country and emigrated to the US, the UK and Canada over last few decades. According to recent estimates, more than 80% of Jamaicans who completed tertiary education and now reside outside the country receive their training in their home country. It has also been observed that this loss of skills significantly impacts the nation’s education system and production sector (Ilasco, 2024).

For Samoa which is the third country that is leading nation grappling with the problem of brain drain. The acute shortage of teachers in schools has led to concerns about older students being tasked with teaching responsibilities to address the deficit. However, the country’s ministry of education has tackled these issues by providing training and capacity-building for young teachers and increasing the number of disciplines taught by each teacher. The authorities in the country do acknowledge there is serious lack of teaching staff in schools

Nigeria, Africa’s most populous country faces a significant brain drain in health sector in particular, the education sector and tech sector. Thousands of doctors and nurses immigrate annually to countries like the UK, Canada, and the United States, seeking better working conditions and higher salaries. This exodus, is known locally as “Japa” and it has been ongoing since the late 1980s.

The causes of brain drain in Nigeria include, poor working conditions and underfunded public services; low wages for professionals especially doctors and university lecturers; political instability, corruption, economic instability resulting in high unemployment and underemployment; poor healthcare in infrastructure, insecurity as a result of conflict, violence and terrorism; low investment in research and development thereby providing limited opportunities for scientists and academics. Nigeria is still struggling to retain talent due to ongoing structural and governance issues. Nigeria is grappling with high unemployment, inflation, and volatile economy, prompting professional to seek more stable opportunities abroad. Limited infrastructure and support for innovation have led tech professionals to relocate for better prospects.

According to Oluwafunke (2025) for many years, Nigeria has been battling with brain drain, popularly called “Japa” with the health sector being one of the worst hits. This took a disturbing dimension at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.  The key sectors affected by brain drain in Nigeria are:

Healthcare sector: Nigeria faces a significant shortage of healthcare professionals. A 2023 report of the Nigeria medical Association revealed that over 50,000 Nigerian doctors practicing terrorism; low investment in research and development thereby providing limited opportunities for scientists and academics. Nigeria is still struggling to retain talent due to ongoing structural and governance issues. Nigeria is grappling with high unemployment, inflation, and volatile economy, prompting professional to seek more stable opportunities abroad. Limited infrastructure and support for innovation have led tech professionals to relocate for better prospects.

According to Oluwafunke (2025) for many years, Nigeria has been battling with brain drain, popularly called “Japa” with the health sector being one of the worst hits. This took a disturbing dimension at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic.  The key sectors affected by brain drain in Nigeria are:

Healthcare sector: Nigeria faces a significant shortage of healthcare professionals. A 2023 report of the Nigeria medical Association revealed that over 50,000 Nigerian doctors practicing abroad, particularly in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom and the Middle-East. The doctor-to-patient ratio remains alarmingly low, far below the world health organizations recommended standard. The shortage has resulted in overworked healthcare personnel, longer patient wait times, and reduced quality of care (The Guardian Nigeria (2023). In 2021 alone, 932 Nigerian doctors migrated to the UK.

Education: University lecturers and researchers leave due to poor funding. iii.                ICT and Engineering: talents relocate to Europe, North America and U.A.E

The consequences of brain drain in these sectors lead to shortage of qualified professionals, diminished public service delivery and loss of tax revenue and national innovation potential. In the healthcare sector, Nigeria faces a critical doctor-to-patient ratio of 1:4,900 far below the WHO’s recommended 1:1,000. Additionally, about 75,000 nurses have left since 2017, exacerbating the strain on the healthcare system (The Nation Newspaper). The exodus leads to economic consequences such as loss of tax revenue and increased reliance on foreign professionals, particularly in sectors like oil and gas (The Guardian.ng, 2023). Also, rural areas suffer the most, with many healthcare professionals preferring urban centers, leaving rural populations underserved (RSIS international)

Nigeria’s health sector in a precarious state of poor remuneration, poor working conditions and lack of opportunities for career advancement, drives qualified health professionals to migrate to other countries. Also, frequent industrial actions by health workers pressing for better remuneration and welfare packages have for years strained Nigeria’s public health services at the federal and state levels. Furthermore, many health facilities across the country are in poor conditions due to dilapidated infrastructure.

Official statistics from the Federals Ministry of Health indicate that the nation has lost no fewer than 16,000 doctors to brain drain in the past five years. According to the Medical and Dental Council of Nigeria (MDCN), the country has only 55,000 licensed doctors to serve its over 200 million population. This means a ratio of one doctor to about 4,000 patients which is far below the WHO’s recommended ratio of 1:600. Furthermore, in addition to the exodus of doctors, about 75,000 nurses have left the country since 2017 as reported by the national Association of Nigerian Nurses and Midwives, leaving the ratio at one nurse to 1,160 patients in the country. Moreso, the association noted about 15,000 nurses left Nigeria in 2022 to take up job abroad (Oluwafunke, 2025).

The increasing number of skilled professionals seeking opportunities abroad has led to Nigerian being one of the 55 countries with a severe shortage of health workers on the WHO health workforce support and safeguard list 2023. The trend, according to WHO, compromise the delivery of quality healthcare services and threatens the nation’s ability to achieve health-related sustainable development goals.

While it is difficult for the Nigerian government to stop the mass exodus of professionals, the continued brain drain is increasingly becoming worrisome for the government. Consequently, president Bola Ahmed Tinubu’s government have approved the National Policy on Health workforce migration to address the ongoing emigration of Nigerian Health workers. The policy significance according to the coordinating minister of Health and Social Welfare, as a comprehensive approach to managing and reversing the migration of health professionals, improve working conditions and offer better rewards and professional growth opportunities 

It is worthy to note that Nigeria has witnessed the return of some renowned specialists in the last few years, and some more of the specialized private health facilities are springing up in the country. Some of the private health facilities are Marcelle Ruth, Duchess International hospital, Evercare among others. Many of these specialists and centres are reshaping Nigeria’s health landscape by delivering the highest standards of care, utilizing advanced technology and treatments to give patients the fastest and convenient access to medical expertise (Oluwafunke, 2025).

Some developing countries have implemented policies to encourage the return of skilled professionals. Countries like Taiwan and India have seen the success in promoting “brain circulation” where professionals gain experience abroad and later return to contribute to their home country’s development. Initiatives such as offering incentives for returnees, creating conducive environment for innovation, and fostering connections with the diaspora would be effective in reversing brain drain. These strategies can lead to enhanced human capital, improved governance, and increased investment and hereby help in the development of the home country.

Total remittances flow (both recorded and unrecorded) to developing countries are large and growing and are estimated to be larger than Foreign Direct Investments and more than double official development assistance (ODA). Many of the benefits of migration to households run through the remittance channel. Migration can also bring benefits to households in developing countries beyond the effects of remittances: the prospect of better employment opportunities can improve incentives for education and knowledge transferred by transnational communities may result in improved health practices and improved labour productivity (World Bank, 2007).

To manage brain drain and maximize the benefits of migration, policies should include:

• Creating attractive conditions for skilled professionals to stay or return
• Leveraging diaspora engagement programmes
• Investing in education and infrastructure to retain talent
• Improve working conditions and career incentives
• Invest in local education and reconstruction and development (R & D)
• Promote “brain circulation” – encouraging temporary migration and return.
• Encourage the diaspora through dual citizenship and development programmes.  

While international migration and brain drain poses challenges to developing countries, it also presents opportunities for growth through remittances, skill enhancement and cultural exchange. By implementing policies that encourage the return of skilled professionals and leveraging the benefits of migration, countries can transform potential losses into avenues for development. International migration is intrinsically linked to development, presenting significant benefits and risks for migrants, their families and the countries involved. Although it is difficult to calculate precisely the number of migrant’s worldwide, recent estimates suggest that nearly 200 million people live outside their country of birth (United Nations department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, 2006). There is indication that the trend will abate in the future as long as there is demographic and economic imbalance between the North and South or third world countries.

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