Teacher education in the 21st century necessitates a comprehensive approach that extends beyond mere cognitive training and academic outcomes. Contemporary educational models focus on more than imparting knowledge; they also aim to foster emotional, psychological, and adaptive skills that are crucial for career success and personal well-being (Goleman, 2020; Salovey & Mayer, 2022). Teachers now work within complex educational environments that are diverse, inclusive, and technologically advanced. Therefore, their ability to stay emotionally stable, mentally healthy, and well-adjusted significantly affects their teaching effectiveness, classroom management, and student engagement (Singh & Kaur, 2021; Sharma & Gupta, 2023).

Emotional Intelligence (EI), as introduced by Goleman (1998) and further elaborated upon by Petrides and Furnham (2020), encompasses self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. In teacher education, EI is a vital meta-competency, helping pre-service teachers manage emotions, foster positive relationships, and respond effectively to pedagogical challenges (Kumar & Arora, 2022; Tripathi & Singh, 2024). Teachers with high EI tend to show greater resilience in the classroom, engage in reflective practices, and create inclusive, empathetic learning environments (Biswas & Ghosh, 2023).

Meanwhile, Mental Health (MH), which includes emotional stability, optimism, resilience to stress, and psychological wellness, forms a key part of teacher preparedness (World Health Organisation [WHO], 2022; Joshi et al., 2023). The World Health Report (2022) states that mental health is more than just the absence of illness; it involves functioning adaptively, having self-efficacy, and experiencing life satisfaction. For pre-service teachers, good mental health is associated with improved coping skills, reduced burnout, and increased motivation to engage in reflective practice (Gupta & Yadav, 2024; Nair & Thomas, 2023).

Furthermore, Adjustment (ADJ) is crucial in teacher education, reflecting an individual’s ability to align personal goals with environmental demands. It encompasses academic, social, emotional, and institutional aspects, all of which shape teachers’ ability to succeed in changing learning environments (Patel & Sharma, 2021). Evidence suggests that well-adjusted teacher trainees tend to possess better interpersonal skills, greater professional satisfaction, and improved mental health (Mehta & Rani, 2022; Singh & Thakur, 2024). For Indian pre-service teachers, especially those managing multiple roles such as academic coursework, school internships, and family expectations being able to balance and adapt is essential (Chopra & Kaur, 2023).

The interaction between EI, MH, and ADJ is crucial in developing comprehensive teacher skills. Emotional intelligence helps pre-service teachers manage emotions, supporting mental well-being, while good mental health promotes effective coping and adjustment (Bajaj & Pande, 2021; Kour & Singh, 2023). This triad not only contributes to academic achievement but also enhances professional resilience, which is increasingly important in facing challenges such as curriculum changes, shifts to online teaching, and diverse student populations (Kaur & Soni, 2023).

Theoretical Foundation

• Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Framework (1998) highlights emotional awareness and social skills as key predictors of success in personal and professional contexts.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943) suggests that meeting psychological and safety needs allows individuals to move toward self-actualisation. This concept is essential for teachers aiming for lifelong learning and creativity.
• Rogers’ Humanistic Theory (1961) emphasises the importance of self-concept, empathy, and congruence for genuine teaching and healthy interpersonal connections.
• Seligman’s Positive Psychology Paradigm (2011) emphasises flourishing as the combination of well-being, optimism, and adaptability. It suggests that mental health and adjustment lead to ongoing personal growth and effective teaching (Seligman, 2011; Fredrickson, 2020).

These frameworks collectively highlight that emotional awareness, adaptive regulation, and psychological well-being are interconnected skills vital for teacher excellence. In teacher training, developing these qualities enhances reflective practice, stress management, and learner-focused teaching methods (Parker et al., 2022).

The landscape of teacher education in Punjab has transformed due to increasing academic expectations, policy changes like NEP 2020, and the demand for techno-pedagogical skills. Although infrastructural developments have advanced, pre-service teachers still face emotional distress, academic anxiety, and adjustment difficulties (Sandhu & Bains, 2022). Colleges such as Aman Bhalla College of Education and Angle College of Education in Amritsar District serve diverse student populations from rural, semi-urban, and urban backgrounds. These students often contend with socio-economic pressures, language challenges, and being first-generation learners, factors that significantly impact their emotional regulation, coping mechanisms, and adjustment processes (Gill & Sidhu, 2023).

In this multicultural, multilingual, and socioeconomically diverse setting, it is essential to understand the psychosocial factors that affect pre-service teachers’ well-being. Studying EI, MH, and ADJ in these groups helps shape curriculum development and teacher mentoring, while also supporting the broader goal of inclusive and sustainable education as outlined in NEP 2020.

This study is significant because it highlights how Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment together influence teacher preparedness, resilience, and effectiveness. These insights can inform the integration of SEL, well-being initiatives, and reforms in teacher education.

Over the past five years, research shows that emotional intelligence (EI) is crucial for mental health (MH) among pre-service teachers and students. Bajaj and Pande (2021) found that EI predicts mental health through resilience, indicating that emotionally intelligent individuals have better coping and less distress. Similarly, Kour and Singh (2023) in Punjab showed that emotional awareness, empathy, and self-regulation protect against academic anxiety and stress, boosting psychological well-being.

International evidence supports these findings. Li et al. (2022) found that emotional competence boosts optimism, self-efficacy, and stress management, underpinning positive mental health in teacher trainees. Petrides and Furnham (2020) noted that trait EI, including self-regulation and emotional understanding, negatively correlates with depression and positively with life satisfaction. Kaur and Soni (2023) observed B.Ed. Interns in EI programs showed lasting improvements in well-being and engagement, highlighting the benefits of socio-emotional training.

Adjustment to academic, social, and emotional demands is linked to EI in teacher education. Patel and Sharma (2021) found that emotionally intelligent pre-service teachers had better academic and social adjustment, showing improved interpersonal and academic management. Gupta and Yadav (2024) demonstrated that EI enhances resilience and self-efficacy, facilitating positive adjustment.

Gender-based differences in adjustment have been noted. Mehta and Rani (2022) found that female pre-service teachers with higher EI had more emotional stability, while males showed stronger social adaptability. Tripathi and Singh (2024) confirmed that reflective teaching, based on EI skills such as empathy and self-regulation, improves institutional adjustment and readiness. Parker et al. (2022) also support the inclusion of EI training in teacher education within the Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) framework for holistic adjustment.

Research shows a reciprocal link between mental health and adjustment. Nair and Thomas (2023) found that pre-service teachers with better mental well-being reported improved social ties, less stress, and more effortless institutional adjustment. Path analysis highlighted coping strategies as mediators between emotional stability and success. Joshi et al. (2023) also noted that emotionally stable, satisfied individuals adapt better to academic and practicum challenges.

Singh and Thakur (2024) highlight that emotional and social adjustment are vital for teaching effectiveness and life satisfaction among teacher trainees. Sandhu and Bains (2022) found that interventions targeting self-efficacy, optimism, and stress management improved mental health and adjustment among Punjab B.Ed. Students. Students. These support Fredrickson’s (2020) broaden-and-build theory, which suggests positive emotions broaden cognitive flexibility and resilience.

Emerging evidence suggests that it is beneficial to study EI, MH, and ADJ as interconnected rather than separate. Kumar and Arora (2022) found that EI predicts mental health and adjustment, accounting for over one-third of the variance in well-being. Biswas and Ghosh (2023) showed that EI moderates the link between academic stress and adjustment, indicating that emotionally intelligent students adapt better under pressure.

Chopra and Kaur (2023) show that mindfulness, linked to EI, improves MH and ADJ in B.Ed. Trainees during practicum. Their findings support including mindfulness-based SEL in curricula, aligning with NEP (2020) goals of resilient, reflective teachers. From 2020 to 2025, studies form a triadic model: EI predicts MH, which influences ADJ, vital for teacher prep.

The literature confirms that emotional intelligence predicts mental health and adjustment (Bajaj & Pande, 2021; Gupta & Yadav, 2024). Mental health and adjustment are reciprocally related, fostering resilience and adaptive behavior (Nair & Thomas, 2023; Singh & Thakur, 2024). Despite the evidence, there are limited multivariate regression studies from Punjab’s teacher education institutions. This study fills that gap by analysing EI, MH, and ADJ through regression analysis, adding region-specific insights to educational psychology and teacher training.

Objectives and Hypotheses

Objectives

1. To assess the levels of Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment among B.Ed. interns.
2. To examine the correlation among Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment.
3. To determine the combined predictive influence of Emotional Intelligence and Adjustment on Mental Health.
4. To analyze the predictive influence of Emotional Intelligence and Mental Health on Adjustment.
5. To explore how Mental Health and Adjustment predict Emotional Intelligence among B.Ed. interns.

Hypotheses

• H₀₁: There is no significant correlation among Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment.
• H₀₂: Emotional Intelligence and Adjustment do not significantly predict Mental Health among B.Ed. Interns.
• H₀₃: Emotional Intelligence and Mental Health do not significantly predict Adjustment among B.Ed. Interns.
• H₀₄: Mental Health and Adjustment do not significantly predict Emotional Intelligence among B.Ed. Interns.

Research Design

A quantitative study using descriptive, correlational, and multivariate regression methods was conducted to explore the relationships and predictive effects among EI, MH, and ADJ.

Population and Sample

The population included all B.Ed. Students in Pathankot District. A purposive sample of 181 B.Ed. Interns were selected - 89 from Aman Bhalla College and 92 from Angle College of Education. Data were gathered through a Google Form shared via WhatsApp, with institutional approval.

Tools

To gather data on Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment, three validated, researcher-made tools using a five-point Likert scale were developed. Designed for B.Ed. Interns in Punjab ensure consistent responses and straightforward interpretation.

The Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) has 40 items across five dimensions: Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, Motivation, Empathy, and Social Skills. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert scale from "Strongly Disagree" (1) to "Strongly Agree" (5). Validated by ten experts, the I-CVI ranged from 0.91 to 1.00, with an S-CVI/Ave of 0.94, indicating excellent content validity. Cronbach’s alpha was 0.92, confirming reliable measurement.

The Mental Health Inventory (MHI) comprises 36 items that assess various psychological well-being areas, including Emotional Stability, Self-Concept, Coping Skills, Life Satisfaction, Resilience, and Stress Management. Respondents rated their feelings on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from "Never" (1) to "Always" (5). The S-CVI/Ave was 0.90, indicating good content validity, and the reliability coefficient (α = 0.89) showed high internal consistency, confirming the scale's effectiveness for pre-service teachers.

The Adjustment Inventory (AI) comprises 30 items across four domains: Home, Social, Emotional, and Educational Adjustment. Each statement is rated on a 5-point Likert scale from Strongly Disagree (1) to Agree (5) Strongly. The S-CVI/Ave of 0.92 indicates strong content coverage, and a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91 shows excellent reliability. These metrics confirm that AI is a reliable measure of adaptive functioning in both academic and interpersonal settings.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 shows that the mean scores for Emotional Intelligence (M = 3.96, SD = 0.42), Mental Health (M = 3.88, SD = 0.47), and Adjustment (M = 3.90, SD = 0.45) are in the moderate to high range on a five-point Likert scale. This indicates that the B.Ed. Interns generally have a satisfactory level of emotional competence, mental stability, and adaptability, suggesting the programs support their socio-emotional development.

H₀₁: There is no significant correlation among Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment.

Table 2. Correlation Matrix

Table 2 presents the correlation matrix, which shows significant positive relationships among Emotional Intelligence (EI), Mental Health (MH), and Adjustment (ADJ) at p < .001. EI correlates moderately with MH (r = 0.452) and ADJ (r = 0.486), indicating emotionally intelligent pre-service teachers tend to have better mental health and adapt more easily. MH and ADJ also strongly correlate (r = 0.499), indicating that well-adjusted students tend to maintain positive mental health. These correlations support the idea that EI boosts psychological well-being and adaptability. Thus, the null hypothesis (H₀₁) that there is no correlation among EI, MH, and ADJ is rejected.

H₀₂: Emotional Intelligence and Adjustment do not significantly predict Mental Health among B.Ed. interns.

Table 3. Regression Predicting Mental Health

The multiple regression analysis presented in Table 3 reveals that Emotional Intelligence (β = 0.248, t = 3.42, p = .001) and Adjustment (β = 0.381, t = 5.11, p < .001) are both significant positive predictors of Mental Health among B.Ed. Interns. The overall regression model is statistically significant, F(2, 178) = 51.99, p < .001, with an R² value of 0.37, indicating that the combined effects of emotional intelligence and adjustment can explain 37% of the variance in mental health. The derived regression equation is: MH = 1.24 + 0.29(EI) + 0.41(ADJ)

This equation shows that a 1-unit increase in Emotional Intelligence raises Mental Health by 0.29, and a 1-unit increase in Adjustment boosts it by 0.41, assuming other factors are constant. Findings suggest that pre-service teachers with higher emotional skills, such as self-awareness, empathy, regulation, and adaptability, are more likely to experience better mental well-being and effective stress management. The model emphasises the link between emotional and adaptive skills in maintaining mental health in teacher education. Therefore, the null hypothesis (H02) is that Emotional Intelligence and Mental Health do not predict Adjustment among B.Ed. Interns are rejected, confirming they significantly enhance mental health.

H03: Emotional Intelligence and Mental Health do not significantly predict Adjustment among B.Ed. Interns.

Table 4. Regression Predicting Adjustment

Table 4's analysis shows Emotional Intelligence (β = 0.319, t = 4.76, p < .001) and Mental Health (β = 0.296, t = 4.41, p < .001) significantly predict Adjustment among B.Ed. Interns. The model is significant, F(2, 178) = 46.00, p < .001, with R² = 0.34, indicating that these factors explain 34% of the variance in adjustment. The regression equation is: ADJ = 1.18 + 0.38(EI) + 0.33(MH).

This equation indicates that a 1-unit increase in Emotional Intelligence boosts Adjustment by 0.38 units, and a 1-unit increase in Mental Health raises Adjustment by 0.33 units, assuming all other factors remain constant. Findings suggest pre-service teachers with higher emotional skills- including empathy, self-regulation, and social awareness- and strong mental health, such as emotional stability and resilience, adapt better to academic, social, and emotional demands. The model highlights that emotional awareness and psychological well-being jointly promote adaptive functioning in teacher education. Thus, the null hypothesis (H03), which claimed that Emotional Intelligence and Mental Health do not significantly predict Adjustment among B.Ed. Interns are rejected, confirming both as key positive factors in the adjustment process.

H04: Mental Health and Adjustment do not significantly predict Emotional Intelligence among B.Ed. Interns.

Table 5. Regression Predicting Emotional Intelligence

Table 5's analysis shows Mental Health (β = 0.283, t = 4.12, p < .001) and Adjustment (β = 0.332, t = 4.68, p < .001) are significant positive predictors of Emotional Intelligence among B.Ed. Interns. The model is significant, F(2, 178) = 48.11, p < .001, with an R² of 0.35, meaning these factors explain 35% of EI variance. The regression equation is: EI = 1.27 + 0.36(MH) + 0.39(ADJ).

This equation indicates that a 1-unit increase in Mental Health results in a 0.36-unit rise in Emotional Intelligence, and a 1-unit increase in Adjustment leads to a 0.39-unit increase, assuming other factors remain constant. Teachers with better psychological well-being, resilience, optimism, emotional stability, and higher adjustment tend to exhibit greater emotional awareness, empathy, and self-regulation. The findings support that mental health and adjustment positively influence emotional intelligence, leading to the rejection of the null hypothesis (H₀₄), which claimed they do not predict Emotional Intelligence among B.Ed. Interns.

This study examined how Emotional Intelligence (EI), Mental Health (MH), and Adjustment (ADJ) relate among B.Ed. Interns in Amritsar, Punjab. Results showed significant links and predictive relations, highlighting their mutual reinforcement in teacher education.

The analysis revealed strong positive links among EI, MH, and ADJ, showing emotionally intelligent pre-service teachers are healthier and more adjusted. This aligns with Goleman’s (1998) idea of emotional intelligence as a multidimensional capacity that aids emotional regulation and social functioning, contributing to well-being and adaptive behavior. Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso (2004) also highlighted that emotionally intelligent people have greater awareness and control of affective states, helping them adapt to academic and interpersonal challenges.

The first regression model (H₀₂) showed that Emotional Intelligence and Adjustment predicted Mental Health, explaining 37% of its variance. This supports Bar-On’s (2006) view that emotional competence self-awareness, empathy, and regulation buffers against psychological distress. Pre-service teachers with greater self-control and social awareness manage stress better, boosting resilience and satisfaction. Adjustment, marked by emotional balance and flexibility, was also a strong predictor of mental health, supporting Ryff’s (1989) framework of well-being.

The second model (H₀₃) showed that Emotional Intelligence and Mental Health significantly predicted Adjustment, explaining 34% of its variance. This suggests emotionally aware and mentally stable individuals handle institutional, social, and personal demands more easily. These findings align with Bajaj and Pande (2021), who noted that emotionally aware students display better adaptive behaviors, and with Rogers’ (1961) Humanistic Theory, which stresses congruence, self-acceptance, and emotional balance as key to positive adjustment.

The third model (H₀₄) showed that Mental Health and Adjustment significantly predicted Emotional Intelligence, explaining 35% of its variance. This reciprocal influence suggests that psychological well-being and adaptive functioning foster emotional intelligence development, aligning with Positive Psychology’s broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001), which states positive emotional states expand cognitive and behavioral abilities. Healthy, well-adjusted teacher trainees are more likely to engage in reflective practice, demonstrate empathy, and manage classroom interactions effectively.

These findings affirm that emotional intelligence, mental health, and adjustment are interconnected and reinforce each other. They align with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (1943), where emotional security and belongingness precede self-actualization, and with NEP 2020, which highlights socio-emotional learning (SEL) and holistic teacher prep. The patterns show that improving one construct can benefit others a key insight for teacher education programs aiming for integrated emotional, cognitive, and adaptive skills.

In Punjab teacher education, pre-service teachers balance academics with socio-familial responsibilities, making capacity development vital. Findings highlight the need for interventions like mindfulness, counseling, and SEL curricula to build emotionally resilient, adaptable educators for modern classrooms.

Findings

• Ed. Interns demonstrated moderate-to-high scores in Emotional Intelligence (3.96), Mental Health (3.88), and Adjustment (3.90), indicating that most pre-service teachers possess satisfactory emotional competence, well-being, and adaptability.
• Correlation analysis showed strong, positive links among Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment (p < .001), indicating these variables reinforce each other. Emotionally intelligent interns tend to have better mental health and higher adjustment.
• The regression model (R² = 0.37) shows Emotional Intelligence (β = 0.248) and Adjustment (β = 0.381) are significant positive predictors of Mental Health, indicating emotionally competent and well-adjusted pre-service teachers report greater well-being, resilience, and life satisfaction.
• The regression model (R²=0.34) shows Emotional Intelligence (β=0.319) and Mental Health (β=0.296) significantly explain interns’ ability to adapt to academic, emotional, and social demands.
• The model predicting Emotional Intelligence (R² = 0.35) shows Mental Health (β = 0.283) and Adjustment (β = 0.332) as key predictors, emphasising the importance of well-being and adaptive functioning for emotional intelligence development.
• Results across models showed reciprocal improvements in constructs like Adjustment, which correspond with gains in Mental Health and Emotional Intelligence, highlighting an interdependent relationship among these psychosocial domains.
• The findings support a holistic teacher development model where emotional intelligence, mental health, and adjustment shape resilient, self-regulated, and adaptable pre-service teachers.
• The observed relationships support Goleman’s EI Framework (1998), Rogers’ Humanistic Theory (1961), and Positive Psychology principles (Seligman, 2011), aligning with NEP 2020’s focus on SEL and teacher well-being in higher education.

Educational Implications

• Findings highlight the importance of integrating SEL modules into B.Ed. curricula to help pre-service teachers develop self-awareness, empathy, and emotional regulation, key aspects of Emotional Intelligence (EI), which support mental well-being and adaptive behaviour.
• Since Mental Health impacts EI and Adjustment, institutions should set up counseling, mindfulness, and peer-support groups to tackle stress, anxiety, and emotional fatigue among teacher trainees.
• Incorporating reflective practices, journaling, and mindfulness exercises can enhance self-regulation and emotional stability, supporting sustainable well-being among B.ed. interns while also boosting classroom management and student engagement.
• Teacher education institutions should foster a supportive climate with mentorship, positive feedback, and inclusive practices to improve adjustment and build resilience.
• This study aligns with NEP 2020, emphasising the need for holistic teacher education that covers cognitive, emotional, and social skills preparing educators to be emotionally intelligent and resilient learning facilitators.
• Faculty development workshops on emotional coaching, classroom empathy, and socio-emotional mentoring can improve educators’ ability to model and build EI and mental well-being in students.

Suggestions for Future Research

• Future research could use a longitudinal design to track changes in EI, MH, and ADJ during the B.Ed. Program, assessing trends and intervention effects over time.
• Conducting quasi-experimental or intervention studies like mindfulness training or emotional literacy programs can empirically test causal effects on emotional intelligence and adjustment.
• Comparative studies across states or cultures can reveal regional differences in psychosocial constructs and guide local teacher education policies.
• Future models might examine self-efficacy, resilience, or coping strategies as mediators or moderators to better understand the link between EI, MH, and ADJ.
• Integrating quantitative data with qualitative insights, such as interviews and reflective journals, can provide more comprehensive interpretations of teacher trainees lived experiences and emotional development.
• Examining differences by gender, academic stream, and socio-economic background may reveal nuanced patterns of psychosocial functioning among B.Ed. Interns.

This study shows that Emotional Intelligence, Mental Health, and Adjustment are interconnected and vital in teacher education. Correlation and regression analyses reveal that Emotional Intelligence and Adjustment predict Mental Health, and vice versa. Mental Health and Adjustment are also strong predictors of Emotional Intelligence, explaining much of the variance.

These findings affirm that emotionally intelligent, healthy, and well-adjusted pre-service teachers are better equipped to handle academic, emotional, and interpersonal challenges in teacher preparation. The study’s implications align with Goleman’s EI theory (1998), Rogers’ Humanistic framework (1961), and Positive Psychology paradigms, supporting NEP 2020's holistic vision.

By highlighting the dynamic interplay among EI, MH, and ADJ, the research emphasises developing emotionally resilient, reflective, and adaptable educators who can foster these qualities in future classrooms. The study supports a transformative teacher education model that considers emotional, psychological, and adaptive skills as central to effective, sustainable teaching.

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